sábado, 13 de enero de 2007

LA MADURACION DE mRNA: FORMACIÓN DEL CASQUETE, LA POLIADENILACION Y LAS REACIONES DE “CORTE Y EMPALME”

LA MADURACION DE mRNA: FORMACIÓN DEL CASQUETE, LA POLIADENILACION Y LAS REACIONES DE “CORTE Y EMPALME”


El procesamiento de los precursores de RNAm es uno de los procesos bioquimicos que diferencia procariontes y eucariontes. En los procariontes la transcripción inicial del RNAm es traducida directamente, en los eucariontes la transcripción y la traducción se llevan acabo en compartimientos diferentes de la célula; la transcripción tiene lugar en el núcleo y la traducción en el citoplasma. Esta separación da una oportunidad a los precursores eucariontes del RNAm de ser procesados en el núcleo sin interferir en la traducción.

Las moléculas maduras de RNAm eucariótico son producidos en procesamiento de las transcripciones iniciales. En algunos eucariontes, los nucleotidos se pueden remover de la parte media de una transcripción inicial de RNAm en un proceso que se llama empalme.
El empalme también se efectúa durante el procesamiento de algunos precursores de RNAr y RNAt eucarióticos.

Las moléculas de RNAm eucariótico tienen extremos modificados

Todas las moléculas de RNAm experimentan modificaciones que incrementan su estabilidad y las hacen mejores sustratos para la traducción. Una forma de incrementar la estabilidad es modificar los extremos de modo que ya no sean susceptibles a las exonucleasas celulares que degradan el RNA.
Los extremos 5’ se modifican antes que los precursores de los RNAm sean sintetizados por completo. El extremo 5’ de la transcripción inicial es un residuo de nucleosido trifosfato que fue el primer nucleótido que se incorporo por la RNA polimerasa II. La modificación de este extremo se inicia cuando el grupo fosfato terminal es removido por la actividad de una fosfohidrolasa. El grupo fosfato terminal es removido por la actividad de una fosfohidrolasa. El grupo difosfato 5’resultante reacciona entonces con el fosforo de una molécula de GTP para formar un enlace trifosfato de 5’---5’. Esta reacción es catalizada por la enzima guanililtransferasa, la estructura que resulta se llama casquete.
La estructura casquete es después modificada por metilacion de la guanina reciente adicionada. Los grupos hidroxilo 2’ de los dos primeros nucleosidos de la trascripción inicial original pueden ser metilados.

El enlace trifosfato 5’---5’ protege lasa moléculas de la 5’ exonucleasas al bloquear el extremo 5’ de la molécula de RNAm. El casquete también convierte los precursores de RNAm en sustratos para otras enzimas procesadoras en el núcleo. En el RNAm maduro el casquete sirve como el sitio de unión para ls ribosomas durante la síntesis proteínas.

Los precursores de los RNAm eucarióticos tan bien son modificados en sus extremos 3’. Una vez que el RNA polimierasa II ha transcripto el extremo 3’ de la región codificadora del DNA, el RNA recientemente sintetizado es roto por una endonuclesas cerca del sitio especifico cuya secuencia consenso es AAUAAA, este sitio se llama la señal de poliadenilacion. La ruptura es de 10 a 20 nucleotidos en sentido inverso de esta señal y depende talvez de secuencias adicionales y quizá también de la estructura secundaria del precursor de RNAm. El extremo 3’ recién generado de la molécula sirve como el cebador para la adición de múltiples residuos de adenosina en una reacción catalizada por poli A polimerasa, requiere ATP se pueden adicionar se pueden adicionar mas de 250 nucleotidos para formar una extensión de poliadenilato que se conoce como cola poli A.



Algunos precursores de RNAm eucariótico son cortados y empalmados.

Las secuencias internas que son cortadas y empalmadas a partir de la transcripcion inicial del RNA , no forman parte de la molécula de la molécula madura de RNA se llaman intrones. Las secuencias que existen en la transcripción inicial de RNA se llamam exones. Las uniones de intrones y exones se conocen como sitos de empalme, dado que estos sitios es donde el precursor de RNAm se cortara y se unirá.

Debido a la perdida de los intrones, con frecuencia el Rna maduro es del tamaño de una fraccion de la transcripción inicial. Los exones de los genes no están situados aleatoriamente, cada exon codifica un dominio discreto de la proteína con estructura secundaria definida.

Una secuencia consenso adicional, se encuentra dentro del intron cerca del extremo 3’. Esta secuencia se conoce como el sitio de ramificación o la secuencia del punto de ramificación.

Los spliceosomas catalizan la remoción de los intrones.

El corte y empalme de los precursores del RNAm comprenden dos reacciones de transesterificacion, una entre el sitio de corte y empalme 5’ de la adenosina del sitio de ramificación y una entre el exon 5’ y el sitio de corte y empalme 3’. Los productos de las dos reacciones son los exones unidos y el intron escindido a la manera de una molécula en forma de lazo. Las reacciones de corte y empalme del RNAm son catalizadas por un complejo de proteína grande: RNA que se llama spliceosoma. El spliceosoma ayuda a retener los productos intermedios y a situar los sitios de corte y empalme de modo que los exones puedan unirse con precisión.

El spliceosoma es un complejo de multisubunidades grande de 3x106 Da esta compuesto por 45 proteínas y por 5 moléculas de RNA cuya longitud total es de 5000 nucleótidos, las moléculas de RNA se llaman RNA nucleonar pequeño (RNAsn) y estan asociadas con proteinas para formar las ribonucleoproteinas nucleonares pequeñas.

Estan divididos en cinco tipos que se llaman U1, U2, U4, U5 y U6. Las cinco moléculas de RNAsn estan ampliamente apareadas en sus bases y contienen nucleotidos modificados. Cada RNPsn estan compuestos por una o dos moléculas especificas de RNA ademas de vaias proteinas.

Estos diferntes RNPns se ensamblan en secuencia para formar el spliceosoma. La formación de un spliceosoma se inicia cuando un RNPsn U1 se fija al nuevo sitio de corte y empalme 5’ del precursor de RNAm recien sintetizado. Esta interaccion comprende el apareamiento de bases entre el sitio 5’ de corte y empalme y una secuencia complementaria cerca del extremo 5’ del RNAsn U1, entonces el RNAsn U2 se fija al sitio de ramificación del intron formando un complenjo estable que cubre alrededor de 40 nucleotidos. En seguida el RNAsn U5 y una proteina llamada IPB se asocian con el sitio de corte y empalme 3’. Por ultimo U4/U6 RNPsn se unen al complejo y todos los RNPsn se reunen para formar el spliceosoma.











LAS AMINOACIL-SINTETASAS Y EL tRNA



Un aminoácido particular esta fijo de modo covalente al extremo 3’ de cada molécula de RNA. El producto de esta reaccion de aminoacilacion se llama aminoacil-RNA-t. Debido a que el enlace del aminoacil-RNA-t es un enlace de alta energia se dice que el aminoácido es activado por la transferencia posterior de una cadena de polipéptidos creciente. Por esta razon las moléculas posterior de una cadena de polipéptidos creciente. Por esta razon las moléculas de aminoacil- RNA-t se llaman algunas veces moléculas cargadas o activadas de RNAt.

Las enzimas que catalizan esta reaccion de aminoacilacion son llamadas aminoa-cil RNAt sintetasas.
Dado que dentro de las proteinas son incorporados 20 aminoacidos diferentes, deben existir al menos 20 diferentes aminoacil-RNAT sintetasas por que una sintetasa unica es capaz de reconocer muchas moléculas isoaceptoras de RNAt.

La exactitud de la síntesis de proteinas depende de la capacidad de las aminoacil RNAt sintetasas para catalizar la fijación del amino- acido correcto para preparar las clases apropiadas de RNAt.

Las moléculas de aminoacil RNAt son sintetizadas en dos etapas.

La activación por un amino – ácido por las aminoacil RNAt sintetasas es similar al principio, a la activasion de los acidos grasos. La reaccion general es:

Aminoácido + RNAt ATP --------------- Aminoacil RNAt + AMP+ PPi


El aminoácido se fija a su molécula de RNAt por la formación de un enlace ester entre el grupo carboxilo del aminoácido en el grupo hidroxilo de 2’ o 3’ de la ribosa y el extemo 3’ de la molécula de RNAt.
Esta reaccion se efectua en dos etapas definidas. En la primera etapa la aminoacil RNAt sintetasa cataliza la formación de un intermediario reactivo. El grupo carboxilo del aminoácido ataca al fosforo α del ATP desplazando pirofosfato y produciendo un aminoacil- adenilatado.

Aminoácido + ATP ------------- Aminoacil adenilatado + PPi

La formación de este intermedario de alta energia activa el amino – acido y el aminoacil- adelinatado permanece unido con firmeza pero no de modo covalente a la aminoacil sintetasa. La síntesis del aminoacil – adenilatado es ayudada termodinámicamente por la hidrolisis posterior de pirofosfato dentro de la celula.

La segunda etapa de la síntesis del aminocil RNAt sintetasa es la transferencia del grupo aminoacilo del intermedario al RNAt sintetasa. El que aino – acido se fije al grupo hidroxilo en 2’ o en 3’ del residuo adenitado terminal en 3’ RNAt depende de que aminoacil RNAt sintetasa catalice la reaccion.

Aminoacil – adenilato + RNAt -------------- Aminoacil RNAt + AMP




Cada aminoacil RNAt sintetas es muy especifica para un aminoácido y sus correspondientes moléculas de RNAt.


Las aminoacil RNAt sintetasas deben distinguir no solo entre aminoácidos, sino tambien entre moléculas de RNAt. La union de un aminoácido especifico a su molécula correspondiente de RNat es una etapa critica en la traducción del mensaje genetico.

Una aminoacil RNAt sintetasa dada se une al ATP y tambien selecciona el sustrato aminoácido apropiado con basa en la carga tamaño y energia libre de union del aminoácido. La seleccion del aminoácido implica la exclusión de aminoácidos con cargas o hidrofobicidad inapropiadas.

La aminoacilRNat sintetasas se une entonces de manera selectiva a una molécula de RNa de transferencia especifica. La molécula aproiada de RNat se distingue por características unidas para cada estructura de RNat. En particular, el tallo aceptor el cual queda sobre la superficie interior de la L de la molécula de RNAt sintetasa. La sintetasa reconoce el anticodon asi como el extremo aceptor. En otros casos, la unión de las moléculas de RNAt a la aminoacil RNAt sintetasa apropiada requiere solo de intelecciones entre la enzima y el extremo aceptor de RNAt. Sin embargo en todos los casos, el efecto neto de la interacción es situar el extremo 3’ de la molécula de RNat en el sitio activo de la enzima.

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